Sign In Sign-Up

Welcome!

Close

Would you like to make this site your homepage? It's fast and easy...

Yes, Please make this my home page!

No Thanks

  Don't show this to me again.

Close

INTRODUCTION
This report aims to investigate the nature of peer relationships and how children’s awareness of the concept of friend develops as they get older. Also investigated were the incidences of rejection in peer groups: why it occurs, the attitudes of non-rejected children towards rejected children and the lasting effects of rejection on children.

LITERATURE REVIEW - Annotated Bibliography

Bagwell, C.L., Newcomb, A.F. and Bukowski, W.M. (1998). “Preadolescent Friendship and Peer Rejection as Predictors of Adult Adjustment”. Child Development, 69, 140 – 153.

Investigated friendship and peer rejection in 60 children in fifth grade and the implications twelve years on in the same individuals. The authors hypothesised that peer rejection would affect life status adjustment; that having or not having a friendship in preadolescence affects self-worth in adulthood; preadolescent rejection predicts psychopathological symptoms in adulthood; and that preadolescent friendship promotes skills that translate into adult friendships and romantic relationships rather than peer rejection. The results of the study were as hypothesised.
- Well-adjusted adults experienced a low level of peer rejection and had a mutual friendship; also it was found that children with high peer and friendship rejection had trouble with authorities as adults.
- Having a friend in preadolescence resulted in high self-worth in adulthood as well.
- It was found that children experiencing a lack of friendship as well as peer rejection encountered psychopathological stress in adulthood – however this was not a clinical diagnosis.
- However the results did not indicate that friendship promoted skills useful in adult relationships, contrary to the hypothesis.

Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc.

Two chapters in this book particularly held interest in terms of social development in primary children and adolescents. The section on “Peer Relations and the Development of Prosocial Behaviour” outlined Robert Selman’s developmental stages in role taking – that is the stages children go through in relating to peers. Also, the types of play children involve themselves in differ at certain ages from unoccupied behaviour, solitary play, onlooking behaviour, parallel play, associative play to cooperative organised play. These types of play and also Selman’s developmental stages in role taking are linked to Piaget’s theories on children’s development.
The second chapter of interest, “Adolescent Social Relations”, notes that friendship is one of the most important concepts that evolves from childhood. Adolescents recognise that a convenient playmate is not always a friend, therefore the factors of mutual understanding and intimacy become important in a friendship. The author also mentions that a peer social life becomes increasingly more significant – which divides the peer group in to two groups, cliques and crowds, cliques being more exclusive than crowds.

Furman, W. and Bierman, K.L. (1983). “Developmental Changes in Young Children’s Conceptions of Friendship”. Child Development, 54, 549 – 556.

This study examined how a child’s concept of “friend” changes over a few years. Children aged between 4 and 7 were interviewed about the characteristics of a friend, the activities that friends do together and their concept of the importance of friendship. The authors made the disclaimer that the interviewing technique used in this study and in others is restricted because of the limited verbal techniques of young children. To combat this there were three parts – an open-ended interview, a picture recognition task and a forced-choice rating measure. The younger children recognised traits such as shared activities, propinquity and physical characteristics as being common in a friend. As children developed and learnt these basic aspects they identified more complex factors that define friendship such as support and affection in a social and cultural context.

Hartup, W.W. (1992). “Conflict and friendship relations”. In Shantz, C.U. and Hartup, W.W. (Ed.). Conflict in child and adolescent development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

This chapter considers the role of conflict in a friendship. The author understands that a friendship has a beginning, middle and end – that is a formative, maintenance and termination stage, and conflict plays a vital part in determining each stage of a friendship. In close friendships between children a disagreement is not always detrimental because this way children can find common ground especially in the initial stages. Other issues covered in this chapter include the nature and implications of both conflict and friendship when forming a new relationship, in an established relationship and in terminating a relationship.

McClintock, E. (1979). Adolescent Socialisation and the High School: A Selective Review of Literature. In Kelly, J.G. (Ed.). Adolescent Boys in High School: A Psychological Study of Coping and Adaptation. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

This particular chapter investigates the type of relationships an adolescent will encounter in high school. The author comments that the impact of peer relationships varies in regard to the “rate, regularity, intensity and closeness of interactions” and that many research articles find that the peer group’s influence on the individual is powerful yet other studies find that youth culture and peer influence is mostly superficial. However most of the articles reviewed supported the concept of peer group as a powerful force in an adolescent’s life. The way an individual chooses to form his or her self is said to be reliant on the norms of the peer group and self esteem is linked to an individual’s status within the peer structure.

Sandstrom, M.J. and Coie, J.D. (1999). “A Developmental Perspective on Peer Rejection: Mechanisms of Stability and Change”. Child Development, 70, 955 – 966.

Investigated peer rejection and the factors involved such as the rejected child’s social characteristics, his or her perception of their own social standing, their expectations of social success or failure and the role of the peer group in sociometric status. This study emphasises aggression in rejected children, and it’s role in isolating children from the peer group as it was found that in early primary school the rejected children had aggression in common. A surprising finding revealed that in upper primary and early high school aggression was not a factor among rejected children, rather it took on a glamorous and “cool” image. Also the research conducted amongst fourth and sixth grade students found that extra-curricular activities improved peer relations, as the rejected children had the opportunity to use different skills and characteristics and form new friendships boosting self confidence and social skills. The study also investigated the locus of control in relation to peer difficulties and the role of parenting style in response to a child’s rejection from the peer group.

LITERARY REVIEW

A child’s idea of a friend is someone who is a handy playmate and shares activities, and is also identifiable more by his or her physical characteristics rather than other attributes (Furman and Bierman, 1983). A study by Furman and Bierman found that over time a child’s concept of “friend” changes as they get older, and develop emotionally. The development of social cognivity in children occurs through play and interaction with other children in various activities, with children working by themselves early in life and then learning how to cooperate with others in shared activities (Damon, 1983). In childhood, adolescence and adulthood relationships of all kinds undergo conflict which can either confirm or terminate that relationship and therefore affect that individual’s attitude towards friendship (Hartup, 1992). Sandstrom and Coie found that within childhood peer relations is also the risk of rejection, which is a higher occurrence in children who are more aggressive however non-aggressive children are rejected for different reasons too, such as appearance and social skills (1999).

In adolescence the development of the concept “friend” is based on intimacy and mutual understanding, and not just dependant on a handy playmate as in childhood (Damon, 1983).  Damon also suggests that within the peer group the structure changes to that of groups of peers, in either cliques or crowds. McClintock writes that during adolescence peers have a powerful influence over taste, with conformity within the peer group influencing status or popularity of the individual (1979). Rejection is still a problem in adolescence, however the focus changes from that of aggressive children; in fact Sandstrom and Coie found in their 1999 investigation into rejected children that aggression became a desirable attribute in late childhood and early adolescence. Bagwell, Newcomb and Bukowski suggest in their study that rejection in childhood could predict maladjustment in adulthood (1998) and Sandstrom and Coie also say that non-aggressive rejected children with an internalised locus of control are also at the risk of maladjustment in late adolescence and as adults (1999).

METHOD
Seven individuals were interviewed including –
- five year old male
- two nine year old males
- fifteen year old female
- two seventeen year old females
- eighteen year old female

The following questions were asked of them:
- What is a friend?
- Why are friends important?
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
- Why do people need friends?
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
- Have you tried to be friends with this person? Why/ Why not?
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The males, one aged five and two aged nine both answered that a friend was generally a nice person that they played with at lunchtimes and that helped them when they were hurt (Appendix one). These responses are in line with those in the study by Furman and Bierman in 1983, which listed common activities and support as reasons for friendships in young children. One nine year old mentioned that a friend is some one who “sticks with you”, echoing the factor of loyalty which is more recognised by older children when defining a true friendship (Furman and Bierman, 1983).
The concept of friendship in the adolescents interviewed perfectly simulated the development in Furman and Bierman’s study. They commented that a friend was trustworthy, understanding, loyal and also someone that they could talk to about certain issues in their life.
Activities that the children shared were team sports, role playing games – in each case a friend was very much fulfilling the handy playmate role (Damon, 1983). The group activities that the adolescents took part in were motivated by common interest, such as going to see an art gallery or discussing an important issue, which is illustrated by Damon as a stage 3 trait in the development of understanding friendship.

Generally the younger children were not aware of rejection within their peer group. Responses to this question ranged from “No idea” to “Everybody has a friend”. However, the five-year-old boy commented that there was a little boy at his preschool that no one played with. When asked why he himself did not approach the boy and ask him to play, the five-year-old said that his teachers said that the other boy was naughty and no one was to play with him.  This is similar to Sandstrom and Coie’s study where they found that childhood aggression or misbehaviour was a factor lending itself to rejection (1999). Another comment in line with Sandstrom and Coie was a comment from a nine-year-old boy that a lot of the popular children in year seven were “mean” and that to beat people up and boss children around was a cool thing with the older children at primary school.
In the adolescent group factors that were attributed to the rejected children that individuals recalled were not conforming, boring personality, bad hygiene, physical appearance and lack of motivation to join the peer group. The adolescent who mentioned a girl she knew who did not think anyone wanted to socialise with her was talking of a rejected child who placed the blame on others in the peer group (Sandstrom and Coie, 1999). This child may face problems in adulthood such as psychopathological distress according to Bagwell, Newcomb and Bukowski (1998).

The younger children suggested that popular children were people that everyone liked; the five-year-old commented that he was popular because his friends chose him for a friend. This child would fit in Stage O of Selman’s Developmental Stages in Role Taking (Damon, 1983), which is an egocentric viewpoint. One nine year old said that he thought that a lot of popular children remained only within the confines of their cliques, and didn’t socialise very much with any of the other children. A group structure is therefore apparent to this child within a primary school situation – Damon suggests this structure appears in high school.
One adolescent thought that personality and confidence were factors that would enhance popularity, while others said that a person needed the clothes and appearances to conform to a certain social group’s norms. This is similar to McClintock's notion that peer groups shape adolescent tastes, and therefore individuals not conforming do not have a high status within the group (1979). A fifteen year old girl mentioned that she knew of peers who were rejected because they objected to the norms of the dominant peer group, and consciously branched off to create a new “clique”. One seventeen-year-old female participant suggested that there were different levels of popularity, with sports and academic oriented students ranking higher in the peer group. Bagwell, Newcomb and Bukowski also mention that school success relates to success in the peer group (1998).

CONCLUSION
The research conducted supported the literature on development of the understanding of friendship and also literature investigating rejected children within the peer group. Younger children had a simpler understanding of the concept of friend and the dynamics within peer groups, which is concurrent with Furman and Bierman’s study (1983). One exception in this younger group was a nine-year-old who seemed to have an accelerated understanding of peer relationships – he understood that there were certain cliques even at his primary school, and saw that the older popular children were more aggressive and not necessarily academically inclined. The adolescents demonstrated a mature understanding of friendship, seeing that a friend was someone with whom they had things in common, a person they could trust and share intimate details of their life with (Damon, 1983).
Implications for learning development:
Factors that enhance peer group status, or popularity that have been mentioned by participants in this fieldwork have been academic and sports orientation. Bagwell, Newcomb and Bukowski found that students who demonstrate a high perceived competence in these fields do better in the peer group. They also comment that rejection and being friendless in childhood may have long term effects on educational endeavours in adulthood and also affect self worth, perhaps even provoking psychopathological symptoms (1998). The participants interviewed for this report suggested that there was no remedy for rejected children, that being popular or unpopular just came down to “social forces” within the peer group.

APPENDIX ONE – responses to interview questions
 
Five year old male
- What is a friend?
A person who comes to me when I get hurt.
Somebody who plays with me – I have heaps of friends.
- Why are friends important?
When you get hurt they come to you
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
Play with friends – tag and chase the girls at preschool.
- Why do people need friends?
I don’t know.
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
Everyone has a friend.
I made a friend out of someone else’s friend. He keeps chasing me around because he’s not happy about it.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
There’s a naughty boy no one plays with – no one wants to play with him because the teachers told me not to.
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
I’m popular – because my friends choose me.

 Nine-year-old male
- What is a friend?
A kind person
- Why are friends important?
You need them to play with
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
We play games
- Why do people need friends?
If you don’t have any friends you will be lonely
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
Everyone has a friend at school.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
Fighting might leave people out
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
Popular kids are kind even to unpopular kids.

 Nine-year-old male
- What is a friend?
A person that plays with you, helps you when you are hurt.
- Why are friends important?
Because they stick with you
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
At lunchtime we play sport
- Why do people need friends?
You’d do nothing if you didn’t have friends
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
No one is really left out. But people might be left out if they looked different, like they had different coloured skin or something.
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
Popular people only talk to their friends and they aren’t very smart. They boss people around and like beating people up.

 Fifteen-year-old female
- What is a friend?
Someone that doesn’t care what everyone else thinks – sticks up for you, trusts and believes in you.
- Why are friends important?
They help boost self esteem, you can talk to friends about things you can’t discuss with other people and trust your friends.
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
I barely go out with them but at school we sit down and talk and joke around. We go shopping sometimes, and talk about other people too.
- Why do people need friends?
There are certain groups where people have common interests – friends are people of a like-mind. You’ll get bored if you aren’t around people you don’t have anything in common with.
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
There is one person no one likes – she doesn’t want to be included – she expect other people to initiate the conversation – she’s lazy.
- Have you tried to be friends with this person? Why/ Why not?
Yes – she was stupid – she is more of an acquaintance – not a friend like I described before.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
Confidence – there's also a set way of doing things. You have to listen to the right music, wear the right clothes, and go to the right parties with the right group of people. Popular groups suppress other social groups – they think they are so popular but no one else likes them.
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
Popular – good looking, wear cool clothes, attitude and confidence – they exclude people of lower social status. They aren’t original or individual.
Unpopular – aren’t as social as popular people. They wear clothes of their own tastes and don’t care what the “popular” people think of them.

 Seventeen-year-old female
- What is a friend?
Someone you can trust, someone that understands you
- Why are friends important?
Because you help them and they help you – support.
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
Party, talk and discuss life, try to solve problems – tell them they aren’t fat!
- Why do people need friends?
Humans need people, you can’t survive on your own you’ll go mental.
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
Yes, they probably didn’t know how to socialize – they were weird and didn’t conform. (Didn’t shave or wear deodorant.) She did drugs and had bad hygiene – social outcast.
- Have you tried to be friends with this person? Why/ Why not?
Yes, she latched on and became annoying. She didn’t know how to make her own friends – had no one else and ended up losing me because she was too clingy.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
Kids may be popular because they are good at sports and unpopular may be better at academics but at high school sports and academic oriented students are popular.
Kids stick together and are carbon copy images of each other.
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
Popular – Different types of popular
- socialites who have clothes, money, looks, boyfriends
- nice popular who are loved by everyone – they are good friends with everyone
Unpopular – Don’t take care of themselves.
Some are mean and superficial popular people who think they are cool but no one likes them.

 Seventeen-year-old female
- What is a friend?
A give and take relationship
- Why are friends important?
Someone to lean on when you need a hand
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
Go shopping and hang out
- Why do people need friends?
Moral support
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
Yes they were boring people, ugly or had bad hygiene
-? Have you tried to be friends with this person? Why/ Why not?
Yes it didn’t work out – I got bored by her.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
Personality and confidence
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
A popular person has a lot of friends and is really sociable.
An unpopular person had bad social skills and is rude.

 Eighteen-year-old female
- What is a friend?
Someone who’d give you anything without asking why - trust
- Why are friends important?
They fulfill your life and you share experiences. It’s having someone to be with.
- What kind of things do you do with your friends?
Second hand shopping, plays, art galleries, museums.
- Why do people need friends?
People don’t need to have friends; some like their own company but it would be a sad life.
- In your year group do you know of anybody who does not have a friend or is left out of the peer group? Why do you think they might be left out?
Yes, they didn’t conform to the rules
- Have you tried to be friends with this person? Why/ Why not?
Yes it didn’t work out; they were idiots, not stimulating.
- Why do you think that some children are popular and others are unpopular?
Clothes, appearances, friends (social groups)
- Describe a popular person – Describe an unpopular person.
Popular – the ultimate popular person is Dharma from Dharma and Greg (TV show). She is confident, happy and friendly.
Unpopular – don’t have particular character traits it’s just social forces and it depends on the individual.

REFERENCES

Bagwell, C.L., Newcomb, A.F. and Bukowski, W.M. (1998). “Preadolescent Friendship and Peer Rejection as Predictors of Adult Adjustment”. Child Development, 69, 140 – 153.

Damon, W. (1983). Social and Personality Development. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc.

Furman, W. and Bierman, K.L. (1983). “Developmental Changes in Young Children’s Conceptions of Friendship”. Child Development, 54, 549 – 556.

Hartup, W.W. (1992). “Conflict and friendship relations”. In Shantz, C.U. and Hartup, W.W. (Ed.). Conflict in child and adolescent development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

McClintock, E. (1979). Adolescent Socialisation and the High School: A Selective Review of Literature. In Kelly, J.G. (Ed.). Adolescent Boys in High School: A Psychological Study of Coping and Adaptation. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Sandstrom, M.J. and Coie, J.D. (1999). “A Developmental Perspective on Peer Rejection: Mechanisms of Stability and Change”. Child Development, 70, 955 – 966.