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The
Mozart Effect and its Limited Implications for Education.
by Natalie Baird The argument for
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There have been many studies over the 1990s as to the effect of Mozart’s music on student’s abilities to process tasks. However there have been only a few that have been successful in proving the so-called “Mozart Effect” (Cockerton et al., 1997; Newman et al., 1995; Rauscher et al, 1993; Steele et al., 1997). In response to the academic backlash, one of the key researchers Rauscher claimed in 1998 that to replicate the successful investigation into the Mozart effect, each variable must be kept very limited. This essay will take the view that the Mozart effect is not a phenomenon able to be taken into the normal teaching environment, as it only affects spatial-temporal reasoning, and even then under strict circumstances (Larkin, 1999; Rauscher and Shaw, 1998).
THE
ARGUMENT FOR:
Research materials reporting the effect
of background music on certain tasks have not exclusively tested the Mozart
effect, but based research on Rauscher and Shaw’s experiments with Mozart’s
music.
A study by Cockerton et. al (1997) tested
the effect of music produced by a computer software package, Koan Plus.
The researchers tried to replicate the study conducted by Rauscher and
Shaw (1998) while replacing Mozart’s sonata for two pianos in D major (K448)
with Koan produced music, which is based on Japanese Buddhist philosophy.
This study successfully proved that listening to music while participants
were taking a general intelligence test improved their ability to answer
a greater amount of questions correctly as opposed to the condition when
no music was played. Instead of arousing the participants as a way of improving
intelligence test performance, the research found that Koan Plus produced
music had an “attention focusing” and relaxing effect.
Cheek and Smith (1999) conducted a study
claiming that music could influence achievement. It was thought that children
who undertook music instruction achieved better in mathematics, perhaps
due to time signature and fractional concepts within music. Those students
learning the keyboard or being instructed privately were achieving the
best out of the whole group interviewed.
Iwaki et al. claimed that certain types
of music were more stimulating and therefore increased brain activity (1997).
However this study was not conducted using Mozart, but Holst’s “The Planets”,
and measured frontal lobe activity in the brain not performance in intelligence
tests. Using two selections “Mars” and “Venus” from “The Planets”, Iwaki
et al. claimed that certain pieces of music aroused and calmed the frontal
lobe according to melody, rhythm and tempo. The researchers suggested that
this type of activity in the brain has positive implications for music
therapy, however not for educational purposes (1997).
Godeli et al. researched the effect on
music in a pre-school environment – not on performance within intelligence
tests (1996). Music, including German, French and American folk songs and
heavy metal music by Def Leopard, was found to stimulate social interactions
between young children. The research suggests that background music could
promote different relationship structures within the classroom, that of
child to child rather than teacher to child.
THE
ARGUMENT AGAINST:
The most reliable research investigating
the effects of background music and task performance did test the Mozart
effect, and did not test variations.
It has been found that Mozart’s sonata
(K448) actually did improve ability to process spatial-temporal tasks,
however only on a temporary basis (Iwaki et al., 1997; Larkin, 1999). An
article by Larkin suggests that any effect on performance is most probably
mood or arousal rather than an indicator of higher brain function and any
effect will dissipate in a matter of minutes after listening to Mozart
(1999). This is supported by Iwaki et al. who claim that while there was
an increase in brain activity while listening to music, the orienting response
to the music declines rapidly after the first few minutes of listening
to the piece (1995).
Steele et al. have found that Mozart did
not have any effect on backwards digit span performance (1997). The researchers
concede that the dependant measure of performance in response to the music
may have been related to their failure. However, they claim that other
experiments used precisely the same dependant measure, that is, paper folding
and cutting tasks, as the original study (Rauscher et al., 1993), yet failed
to achieve the same result.
One study that replicated the procedure
of Rauscher et al. (1993), came up with no evidence as to the benefits
of listening to Mozart to improve spatial reasoning (Newman et al., 1995).
Even making the sample size considerably larger to account for thorough
testing, prior musical knowledge and musical preference failed to make
this experiment succeed.
CONCLUSION
To achieve successful results when testing
the Mozart effect, even the primary researchers Rauscher and Shaw (1998)
admit that certain factors must be the same as in their original study.
This means that dependant measures, the order of conditions and selection
of musical composition must be in line so that the study will not fail.
Other researchers have tried to change the variables in order to test the
boundaries of this effect (Newman et al., 1995; Steele et al., 1997) with
few successful results. However the research that introduced certain variables
such as different music and different tasks have found that Mozart and
indeed other musical compositions can have an effect on mood, attention
and relaxation (Iwaki et al., 1997; Larkin, 1999; Newton et al., 1995).
This effect has been proven to be temporary only however these aspects
can be applied to the classroom much easier and with more realistic results.
Cheek, J.M and Smith, L.R. (1999). “Music Training and Mathematics Achievement”. Adolescence, 34, Winter, 759 – 761.
Cockerton, T., Moore, S. and Norman, D. (1997). “Cognitive Test Performance and Background Music”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, November
Godeli M.R, Santana, P.R, Souza, V.H, Marquetti, G.P. (1996). “Influence of Background Music on Preschoolers’ Behaviour: A Naturalistic Approach”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 82, April, 1123 – 1129.
Iwaki, T, Hayashi, M, Hori, T. (1997). “Changes in Alpha Band EEG Activity in the Frontal Area After Stimulation with Music of Different Affective Content”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, January, 515 – 526.
Larkin, M. (1999, August 28). “Mozart effect” comes under strong fire. The Lancet.
Newman, J, Rosenbach, J, Burns, K, Latimer, B.C, Matocha, H.R, Rosenthal Vogt, E. (1995). “An Experimental Test of ‘The Mozart Effect’: Does Listening to His Music Improve Spatial Ability?”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, November, 1379 – 1387.
Rauscher, F.H, Shaw, G.L and Ky, K.N. (1993). “Music and spatial task performance”. Nature, 365, 611.
Rauscher, F.H and Shaw, G.L. (1998). “Key Components of the Mozart Effect”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, March, 835 – 841.
Rideout, B.E, Dougherty, S, Wernert, L. (1998). “Effect of Music on Spatial Performance: A Test of Generality”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 86, February, 512 – 514.
Serebriakoff, V. (1988). A Guide to Intelligence and Personality Testing: Including Actual Tests and Answers. London: Camforth.
Steele, K.M, Ball, T.N and Runk, R. (1997). “Listening to Mozart does not Enhance Backwards Digit Span Performance”. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 84, March, 1179 – 1184.